In writing or determining the timing used for a musical piece, several factors are involved interactively. The physical shapes of the notes represent timing of the notes in relationship to each other. A time signature given at the beginning of a piece gives a full beat to one of the note shapes. And finally, a beat frequency is stated either by number of beats per minute or by a term or phrase representing a certain range of beats per minute.

PHYSICAL SHAPES OF NOTES AND RESTS are shown in figure A. Each of the notes or rests are equal to two of the units on the row below. For example, a half note is equal in duration to two quarter notes. Or, a quarter rest is equal in duration to two eighth rests, and so on.

DOTTED NOTES are 50% longer than standard notes. For example, a dotted half note is equal in duration to three quarter notes, or a half note and a quarter note. Dotted rests are not used. If you wanted a rest equal in duration to a dotted half note, you would use a half rest followed by a quarter rest.

A BEAT is a unit of musical time. When using a metronome, the ticking of the metronome represents the musical beat. Any of the note values can occupy a full beat, and this information is specified in the time signature at the beginning of a piece.

A BAR-LINE is a vertical line drawn on the staff to divide the music into measures.

A MEASURE is a fixed number of beats of music which occurs between two bar-lines. The fixed number of beats will be stated in the time signature of the piece.

A DOUBLE BAR-LINE is used to divide major sections of a composition (such as dividing themes, or compositional styles. A double bar could be used between an introductory fanfare and the beginning of a waltz, for example.) A double bar is generally used at the end of a song.

TEMPO is the speed at which a composition is to be played. A specific frequency can be stated at the beginning of the song, written above the staff, such as quarter note = 60MM. This indicates that a quarter note will occur 60 times per minute. MM stands for Maelzel's Metronome.

The second method of tempo indication is slightly more popular, and in my opinion, more artistic. This method uses standard Italian terms to indicate approximate range of tempos. This allows for more expression or interpretation by the performing artist. The most standard terms are; (from slowest to fastes) largo (broad), lento (slow), adagio (at ease), andante (walking), moderato (moderate), allegro (fast, cheerful), presto (very fast), prestissimo (as fast as possible). These terms will normally be found written below the staff at the beginning of the piece, and throughout the song wherever speed changes are required.

TIME SIGNATURES are composed of two numerals stacked one above the other, and written directly on the staff after the key signature at the beginning of the song. The upper number states the number of beats in a measure, while the lower number signifies which note style occupies a full beat. 2/4 represents two beats per measure with a quarter note lasting one full beat. 3/8 represents three beats/measure an eighth note getting a full beat. Two abbreviations are commonly used in time signatures. One is C which represents 4/4 timing (often called Common time). The other is ¢ which means cut time (or Alla breve) and represents a 2/2 time signature.

Examples of several time signatures are shown in figure E. Several measures of music with the beats indicated by the arrows trader the staff are illustrated.

When you finally get down to writing out your music, there are several points which may make your job easier.

FLAGS OR BARS? When several consecutive notes have flags (eighth, sixteenth, etc.), those notes within full beats can be barred to eliminate drawing a lot of flags. Algo, this allows the performer to more easily see what notes fall in what beats.

STEMS - UP OR DOWN? To avoid wasting manuscript space or interfering with adjacent staves, notes written above the middle of a staff should have their stems turned down and connected to the left side of the note body. The major exception to this rule is that when a group of barred notes contains both high and low notes, all stems should be in the direction that the majority of the notes would normally use.

WHOLE RESTS can be used to signify a whole measure of rest regardless of the number of beats per measure. For example, a whole rest in 3/4 time occupies 3 beats while a whole rest in 7/8 time can last 7 beats.

EXTENDED RESTS - When writing out separate musical parts for separate performers, it is not uncommon for one instrument to have several measures of rest while the rest of the performers continue. In this case, rather than writing measure after measure of whole rests, the total number of measures can be indicated in one measure to save space.

SINGLE MEASURE REPEATS are useful where a specific note pattern in one measure is repeated in two or more consecutive measures. Only the first measure of the pattern need be written out. Single measure repeats are then used until the pattern is to be changed. The "Oom-Pa, Oom-Pa" bass line shown below is a perfect example.

REPEATING PHRASES is signified by colons inside double bar lines. There should be a double bar prior to and following the phrase to be repeated, unless the repeat is to start at the beginning of the piece.

A TIE is used to show that a note is to continue longer than allowed in any one measure. For example, if a note is to be held for five beats, but you are only allowed two beats per measure, you will need to tie two half notes and a quarter note together as shown.

A SLUR is used when you want to tie two different notes to fall within the same envelope. The first note is played as usual and at the proper time the pitch is shifted to the next note without rearticulation or any silence between the two. This should not be confused with portamento or glide, as the pitch change is an instant one. On a synthesizer, this would be accomplished by pressing the second note slightly before the first key is released, thus preventing the envelope shaping from resetting and refiring.

By now, you should be able to fairly accurately notate your music — at least well enough to jot down your musical concepts until you have a chance to fully develop or record them. In future articles we will "put the frosting on the cake" by discussing common methods of indicating expression and variables in your music.